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Fats & Oils
After water, fat is the most abundant substance in your body. Fats from animal and vegetable sources provide a concentrated source of energy in the diet; they also provide the building blocks for cell membranes, for hormones and for prostaglandins. In addition, they act as carriers for important fat-soluble vitamins a, D, E and K. Dietary fats are needed for the conversion of carotene to vitamin A and for a host of other processes. More than 70% of your brain and nerve cells are made of fat, making this critical tissue resilient and shock-resistant. Every cell membrane in your body is at least 30% fat. Both cholesterol and saturated fat are essential for growth in babies and children. In babies, fat is needed in the formation of myelin--a specialized membrane that protects the nerves and is essential to the normal development of the central nervous system and the brain. The fat contained in breast milk best meets this development. Yet, the American Heart Association is now recommending a low-cholesterol, low-fat diet for children! Those who possess enough will power to stay fat-free for any length of time develop a variety of health problems including low energy, difficulty in concentration, depression, weight gain and signs of mineral deficiencies. Those who point to Japanese statistics to promote the low-fat diet fail to mention that the Swiss live almost as long on one of the fattiest diets in the world.
Five billion people live on planet Earth. The average weight of a human being is about 150 pounds or 70 kilograms. The average human carries about 15% of his body weight or 10 kg as fat. According to these figures, human beings collectively carry a total of 50 billion kilograms of fat around with them in their bodies. Mother's milk contains a higher portion of cholesterol than almost any other food. It also contains over 50% of its calories as fat, much of it saturated fat. Concentrated foods of all types increase fat deposition. Compared to fat at 15% of body weight, protein constitutes a fairly constant 12% of the weights of both men and women, less than fat on the average. Excess protein is converted into stored fat. Carbohydrate makes up a mere .5% of body weight, including sugar in the blood and tissues, and muscle and liver stores of glycogen. Any carbohydrate above this low level is also turned into fat. Minerals are about 3.5% of body weight. Each gram of fat stores more than twice as much energy as the same weight of protein or carbohydrate. While most cells contain about 70% water, fat cells contain up to 70% fat.
Perhaps the most important role of fats is in the manufacture of prostaglandins, hormone-like compounds that regulate every function in the human body at the molecular level. Because the system does not store prostaglandins, each cell needs a daily amount of essential fat. Other life-supporting functions of fat are: Assisting the body in utilizing the B-vitamins for digestion, nerve health, energy and mental well-being; elevating calcium levels in the bloodstream and transporting it to the tissues for strong bones and cramp-free muscles that are toned and firm; carrying and storing fat-soluble vitamins, such as A, D, E and K, for healthy skin reproduction; blood clotting; and activating the flow of bile to digest fat; helping the body conserve protein to rebuild vital tissues; insulating and cushioning vital organs, nerves and muscles against shock, heat, and cold.
The average adult U.S. male eats about 2.7 kg (about 6 pounds), and the average U.S. female eats about 1.8 kg (about 4 pounds) of food per day. According to 1979 figures, the average person in the U.S. ate 135 lbs of fats that year, about 168 grams per day--56% of the average daily calories. The small intestine can digest about 10 grams of food fats every hour. That's the maximum capacity. The consumed fat was 34% saturated, 40% monounsaturated and 15% polyunsaturated fatty acids. The rate of fat consumption has been increasing by about 1 pound per person per year for the last 20 years. For men, 23% of the body weight as fat is considered obesity; for women, 32% is considered the edge. In the metabolism of fat, several minerals and vitamins are known to be involved. This field of study, important as it is, is just in its infancy. Vitamins A and E are necessary to keep essential fatty acids intact in the body, to protect them from destruction by oxygen and free radicals, and to keep them capable of fulfilling their important duties. In 1900, cancer killed one person in every 30. Today it kills one in 3. Around the turn of the century, cardiovascular disease accounted for one death in every 7. Today, it accounts for one death in every 2. Diabetes has risen at a similar rate, and the other diseases of fatty degeneration, like multiple sclerosis, liver and kidney degeneration have risen equally as fast.
Between 1910 and 1980, many changes took place in the kinds and amounts of fats and oils that people ate; total consumption of all fats increased by 35%. Fat consumption rose from 32% of calories to 42% and is still rising every year. Diseases of fatty degeneration today kill upward of 75% of the people living in the affluent, industrialized nations of planet Earth before their natural "three score and ten years" are up. In America, fats and oils make up over 40% of the 2,500 calories that a human being consumes daily. This is about 1,000 calories per day that a human being consumes as fats. A gram of fat produces 9 calories, so 1,000 calories is contained in just over 110 grams, and this is one estimate of the daily fat consumption for the average well-to-do person. Traditionally in Europe, oil pressing was a home and cottage industry. Every large estate and little town had its own oil mill. Fresh flax oil was delivered in small bottles. People knew that good oil has to be bought in small quantities and used fresh, because it is alive and spoils, just like fresh vegetables, milk and eggs. And just like these, fresh oil was sold door-to-door, just like milk and eggs.
In the 1920s, the "bigger is better" philosophy gradually took over the oil trade. Huge oil firms developed. Machinery that was new in the 1920s transformed the vegetable oil business from a cottage industry into mass production. Before mass-produced vegetable oils became common, the American public had not been indoctrinated to seeing big displays of golden oils in clear glass bottles. Mass marketers accomplished that so thoroughly up through the 1950s that we completely take it for granted in the 1990s. The mass marketers didn't consider health when they made the decision to let us see the oil through clear glass. And we've accumulated much new information since the 1930s. By the end of World War II, flax oil, had disappeared from the market, because the "impurities" it contains make it unstable and make it spoil. The spoilable "impurities" in flax oil are the two nutritionally essential fatty acids Linoleic Acid (LA) and Alpha Linolenic Acid (LNA). Flax oil was replaced by more stable oils, oils with less of the essential fatty acids in them and therefore, less chance of spoilage during transport and storage, but also, therefore, oils of inferior nutritional value.
We got low quality oils; oils with much of their health value removed, altered, or destroyed in place of the fresh, natural, high quality oils with their complex composition of oil-related, mineral, and vitamin substances. These substances help in the digestion and metabolism of oils and have nutritional value of their own. We got bland refined oils without taste. We got pesticide residues in our edible oils that interfere with nerve functions and oxidation processes, and therefore lower our vitality. We got chemically extracted oils with chemical solvent residues in them. These are lung irritants and nerve depressants. We got non-natural antioxidants in our oils, which improve the oil's shelf life, but which may interfere with energy production, cell metabolism and respiration because they do not fit in to the incredibly precise architecture of our enzyme systems and membranes, and, over time, contribute to many diseases and to our lack of vitality. We obtained oils that have been altered by heat and alkali from their natural nutritious form into oils which contain substances detrimental to health: trans-fatty acids, polymers, cyclic compounds, aldehydes, ketones, epoxides, hydroperoxides and many other compounds not yet identified, many of which are toxic to our bodies.
The processes used to refine oils produce many dozens of different substances. The process is random, and can't be controlled--different batches of oil contain varying amounts and kinds of chemically altered fat breakdown products. We ended up with fats and oils which are the nutritional equivalent of the refined sugars in carbohydrate nutrition: demineralized, de-vitaminized, fiber-less, empty calories, which cannot be properly digested and metabolized, which rob the body of its stores of minerals and vitamins, which lead to fatty degeneration in all of its many forms. In 1911, the first shortening (Crisco), made by the hydrogenation of oils, hit the supermarket shelves. The average intake of trans-fatty acids in hydrogenated products has risen from zero in 1910 to close to 10% of all fats consumed today, or between 10 and 15 grams per day per person.
The use of butter has declined to 1/5 of its 1910 level, while the use of margarine has increased by 9 times. The use of lard has gone down to about 1/5 of its former level, while the use of vegetable shortenings has almost doubled in the same time span. The consumption of edible beef fat has gone up 2.5 times. Vegetable fat consumption has increased from 21 to 70 grams/day, while consumption of animal fat decreased slightly, from 104 to 99 grams/day. The consumption of beef has gone up, while that of pork, especially since 1947, has gone down. Poultry fat consumption has gone up, the use of fish has remained essentially stable, and the use of other meats has diminished. The consumption of salad and cooking oils has increased by about 12 times; of whole milk is less than ½, and of cream less than 1/3 of its level in 1910, whereas cheese consumption has almost tripled, ice cream and frozen desserts have increased 5 times, and low-fat milk has increased by 3 times. The consumption of saturated fatty acids has increased 16%, that of oleic acid has gone up by 33%, and that of linoleic acid has increased by 170%. These figures do not take into account how much of the LA was altered or trans- or other breakdown products, how much LA was denatured by processing and frying, or how much LA was destroyed by light in transparent bottles, i.e. how much LA was still LA when it was finally consumed.
There seems to be quite a bit of confusion related to fat and oils. In fact, columnists who answer questions on diet and nutrition tell us that 50% of their questions from readers concern fat and oils. Most writers are not knowledgeable on the whole field, and much of their information on fats and oils comes from the industries which market fat and oil products for profit. Fats--or lipids--are a miscellaneous grouping of organic substances that are not soluble in water. Consider some of the special vocabulary related to fats and oils: fatty acids, cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids, monounsaturates, polyunsaturates, omega-3's. Fats are composed of: glycerol, saturated fatty acids, mono-unsaturated fatty acids and essential fatty acids, are each used differently in the body. Glycerol is used to make glucose when the body's supply runs down. Researchers classify fatty acids not only according to their degree of saturation but also by their length. Short chain fatty acids have 4 to 6 carbon atoms; medium length fatty acids have 8 to 12; long chain fatty acids have 14 to 18 carbon atoms and very long chain fatty acids have 20 to 24 carbon atoms.
Unlike the longer chain fatty acids which are absorbed by the lymph system and must be acted on by the bile salts, short chain fatty acids are absorbed directly through the portal vein leading to the liver. As they do not need to be acted upon by the bile salts, these short and medium chain fatty acids supply quick energy. It is the longer chain fatty acids that are stored in the adipose tissue, particularly oleic and linoleic acid. Thus butter and coconut oil, which contain a significant portion of short and medium chain fatty acids, do not contribute to weight gain as much as olive oil and vegetable oil. The short and medium chain fatty acids also have anti-microbial and anti-fungal properties in the intestinal tract; they have anti-tumor properties and help strengthen the immune system, while an excess of polyunsaturated fatty acids stimulates tumor growth. Unsaturated omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are called essential fatty acids or EFA's because the body cannot manufacture them, at least not in the form in which they occur in foods. It is wise to limit intake of polyunsaturates to 4% of the caloric total, in approximate proportions 1½% omega-3 linolenic acid and 2½% omega-6 linoleic acid.
Too much omega-6 in the diet can interfere with the desaturase enzymes that produce longer chain highly unsaturated fatty acids, which are the precursors of important prostaglandins. These are localized tissue hormones that direct many processes in the cells. When the production of prostaglandins is compromised by excess omega-6 in the diet, coupled with too little omega-3, serious problems result including inflammation, hypertension, irritation of the digestive tract, depressed immune function sterility, cell proliferation, cancer and digestive tract, depressed immune function, sterility, cell proliferation, cancer and weight gain. In contrast, dietary saturated fats contribute to optimal utilization of essential fatty acids.
Triglycerides are the main class of food fats; they contain three fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol molecule. They make up about 95% of all the fats we eat, as well as most of the stored fat we carry around in our bodies. They are the major way of storing energy for future use, in the seeds of the plants from which we press edible oils, in egg yolks and in the depot fats of animals. In wholesome diets, the triglycerides also serve as the body's reserve of the valuable essential fatty acids, LA and LNA. A glycerol molecule is the backbone of a triglyceride, and on to each of its 3 carbon atoms, one fatty acid is hooked, to make a 3 pronged fork. The 2 outside carbon positions of the glycerol prefer to hold a saturated fatty acid, whereas the middle position prefers an essential fatty acid. All fats and oils are mixtures of triglycerides. The body separates the triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids, and reconstitutes the parts back into triglycerides as is needed. It burns for energy the short chain fatty acids and the saturated and monounsaturated 16- and 18-carbon fatty acids, while preserving the essential fatty acids for their extremely important structural and metabolic functions.
Triglycerides have several functions. They form a layer of insulation around the body, which conserves heat. Without this layer, more food consumption, more digestion, more absorption, and more metabolism of substances would be required to keep body temperature constant. It is more efficient and less wasteful to conserve the heat rather than to keep producing it, just as it is more efficient to put on a jacket. The adipose (fat) layer around the body and internal organs also protects us from shock and injury when we bump into things and every time we take a step, walking or running. Adipose is singularly effective at dampening the shock waves, which would otherwise destroy delicate tissues. The fat pad under the heel, for instance, takes up a tremendous amount of shock each time the heel hits the pavement. However, the main purpose of adipose tissue is as a reserve of energy on which the body can draw between meals, during times of increased exertion, while asleep, during famine, or while pregnant.
Since man evolved as a natural being subject to times of feast and times of famine, the adipose tissue system evolved to mellow out the fluctuations between these two extremes. Plants did not evolve such a system. For this reason they stop growing when the sunshine fades or when it gets cold. Another purpose of triglycerides is that substances such as sugars, which are necessary for brain function but are toxic in excess, can be converted to triglycerides which are less harmful in large quantities. So the triglycerides provide a kind of safety mechanism for the body, a way of changing potentially toxic substances into neutral ones. Excess triglycerides cause problems. High triglyceride levels in the blood are associated with high intake of refined sugars in the diet. High blood triglyceride levels increase the tendency of blood cells to clump together, decreasing the amount of oxygen the blood can carry, and increase the risk of all degenerative disease, including cancer. Safe blood triglyceride levels should be 100 mg/dl or lower. The level in North Americans is often above that.
Phosphatides (phospholipids) are the second major class of lipids (besides the triglycerides) found in foods and in the body. They are the major structural lipids of all organisms. Phosphatides are similar to triglycerides in that two fatty acids are attached to a glycerol molecule, but phosphatides differ from triglycerides in that, whereas the third position on the glycerol of triglycerides holds a third fatty acid, this position in the phosphatides holds a phosphate group. Lecithin is the best known member of the phosphatide group. Lecithin supplies choline, which is necessary for liver and brain function (an important component of bile). Choline also helps the body to utilize fats and cholesterol properly. The phosphate group changes the properties of the molecule drastically. Whereas a triglyceride is a non-polar, fat-soluble molecule which dislikes water and likes to aggregate into an oil droplet with other triglyceride molecules, the phosphatide is polar and water-soluble, tends to disperse over surfaces, (the negatively charged phosphate groups repel one another) and is dual in nature. The fatty acid part of the molecule is fat soluble, and the phosphate group is water soluble.
The dual nature of the phosphatides, and their tendency to spread out in a thin layer wherever water and oil meet, suits them in a unique way to form biological membranes, and sure enough, that's where we find phosphatides--in membranes. They form the double-layered membrane, the "skin" of every living cell of every living organism: bacteria, plants, animals, and humans. Phosphatides also form the skins of the little organs, the organelles, within the cells. They surround the mitochondria, the Golgi apparatus, the endoplasmic reticulum, the nuclear membrane, the lysosomes, and the other intracellular factories. Within the membrane, the phosphatides have many functions. They form the basic barrier, which keeps the outside outside, and the inside of the cell or organelle. Along with proteins, they determine the selectivity of the membrane, regulating which substances are allowed or transported into the cell or organelle from the outside, and which substances from within the cell are allowed or encouraged to leave. The phosphatides help to prevent the membrane proteins from falling out of the membrane; they help to hold them in place in the membrane, where these proteins fulfill many special enzyme and transport functions. A saturated fatty acid is usually found on the outside position of the glycerol molecule, and gives some rigidity to the membrane. It also separates the highly unsaturated fatty acids, thereby preventing them from chemically reacting with one another in ways not conducive to life.
Phosphate groups can have attached to them one of several other chemical structures, whose exact function in membranes is still a mystery. The names of the main ones are choline, inositol, serine, and ethanolamine. Phosphatidyl choline is a phosphatide with a choline group attached to its phosphate. Besides the phosphatides and proteins, the membranes contain cholesterol, which fine-tunes the fluidity of the membranes under constantly fluctuating conditions of food fat intake. Phosphatides keep the fats soluble in the blood. If phosphatides (and proteins) did not surround these lipids, the lipids would coalesce, form "greasy" bubbles in the blood, and rise within us in the same way that cream rises to the top of milk. Our head and shoulders would be all oil and the rest of us protein and water. The phosphatides prevent this.
Of the two dozen fats, two cannot be synthesized within your body. You must get them from your diet. They are called essential fatty acids (EFAs). EFAs govern every life process in the body. Life without EFAs is impossible. Their names are linoleic acid (LA) and linolenic acid (LNA).
Linoleic acid has 18 carbon atoms in the chain, there are 2 double bonds, the double bonds are methylene interrupted, the first double bond starts at carbon atom number 6, counting from the methyl end, and the double bonds are in the cis-configuration.
Linolenic acid is very similar to LA, but has 3 double bonds, the first one is on carbon atom number 3, counting from the methyl end. Both LA and LNA are essential fatty acids. This means that the human body has to have them, cannot make them, and must therefore get them from food sources. A third fatty acid, called arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4w6), was thought to be essential for a time, but the human body can make it from LA, and therefore AA is not essential. If either LA or LNA is missing or deficient in the diet, deficiency diseases develop.
The symptoms of LA deficiency include: eczema-like skin eruptions, loss of hair, liver degeneration, behavioral disturbances, kidney degeneration, excessive water loss through the skin accompanied by thirst, drying up of glands, susceptibility to infections, failure of wound healing, sterility in males, miscarriage in females, arthritis, heart and circulatory problems, and retardation of growth. Prolonged absence of LA from the diet is fatal. All of the deficiency symptoms (except death) can be alleviated, by adding LA back to the diet, from which it was missing. The symptoms of LNA deficiency include: retardation of growth, weakness, impairment of vision and learning ability, motor incoordination, tingling in arms and legs, and behavioral changes. These symptoms can be removed by adding LNA back to the diet from which it was missing.
Americans are deficient in essential fatty acids because fats and oils eventually turn rancid, they are removed from foods to give them a longer shelf life. Rancid and spoiled oils cause problems in our intestines on the way through, by irritating the delicate intestinal lining and feeding unfriendly organisms in our intestines. When essential fatty acids are deficient, we can expect a diversity of health problems. Your cells utilize EFAs for energy production. Your glands require EFAs for their secretions. EFAs enhance the strength of your immune system. EFAs nourish your skin, hair, mucous membrane, nerves, thyroid, adrenals and aid in the prevention of arteriosclerosis. Fatty acids are the major building blocks of the fats in human bodies and foods and are important sources of energy. They are also major structural components of the membranes which surround the cells, and within each cell, of the membranes which surround subcellular organelles, and thus fatty acids have important functions in the building and maintenance of healthy cells. The cell membranes are the body's defense system. Increased permeability can have devastating effects on any body tissue, allowing toxins a passageway into the bloodstream. Essential fatty acids attract oxygen. This property has made them useful in the paint industry in "drying" oils which, when exposed to air, dry and harden. EFAs absorb sunlight. The absorption of light energy increases their ability to react with oxygen by about 1,000-fold, and makes them chemically very active. The essential fatty acids carry a slight negative charge, which makes them capable of a number of activities important in the body. Their molecules repel one another because of this charge. This means that they spread out in a very thin layer over surfaces, and do not form aggregation. This property is called surface activity.
In biological systems, surface activity provides the power to carry substances such as toxins to the surface of the skin, intestinal tract, kidneys, or lungs where these substances are discarded. The surface activity of the EFAs also helps to disperse concentrations of any substances, which either react with or dissolve in these fatty acids. The negative charge also makes the EFAs weakly alkaline (as opposed to acidic), and able to form weak hydrogen bonds with weak acid groups such as the sulphydryl groups found in proteins. Sulphydryl groups are especially important in oscillating reactions, which take place between them and the double bonds of the essential fatty acids. They allow the one-way movement of electrons and energy in molecules that are required to make possible the chemical reactions on which life depends. Because of their special arrangement, the electrons involved in the double bonds of the essential fatty acids can be induced to become loose and move, as so-called de-localizing pi-electrons, which resemble clouds floating along the fatty acid chain. They are able to form phase boundary potentials (like charges of static electricity in a capacitor), which are caught between the water within and outside cells, and the oils within the membranes.
These charges can produce measurable bio-electric currents (like the zap when static electricity discharges), which are important in nerve, muscle, heart and membrane functions. The essential fatty acids form a structural part of all cell membranes, where they hold proteins in the membrane by the electrostatic attractive force of their double bonds, and thus they are involved in the traffic of substances in and out of the cells via protein channels, pumps, and other special mechanisms. There is a relationship of EFAs to sulphur-containing proteins in membranes. They have a part in maintaining the fluidity of membranes, and in creating the electrical potentials across the membranes, which when stimulated, can generate bioelectric currents which travel along the cells to other cells, transmitting messages.
EFAs are the precursors of a family of substances, the hormone-like, short-lived prostaglandins, which regulate many functions of all tissues on a moment-to-moment basis. Some prostaglandins affect the tone of smooth (involuntary) muscles in the blood vessels. Some prostaglandins lower blood pressure, some relax coronary arteries, and some inhibit platelet stickiness. Others have opposite effects, and a delicate balance exists in our bodies between opposing effects, which determines the state of physical health of our cardiovascular systems. The EFAs are also the precursors for even longer and more unsaturated fatty acids which are needed in the most active energy-exchanging and electron-exchanging, as well as oxygen-requiring tissues, especially the brain, retina, inner ear, adrenal, and testicular tissues. They carry the high energy required by these most active tissues, and ensure very high oxygen availability. The essential fatty acids are growth enhancing. At levels above 12-15% of total calories, they increase the rate of metabolic reactions in the body, and the increased rate "burns" more fat into CO2, water and energy (heat), resulting in fat burnoff and loss of excess weight.
They help keep the body depot fats fluid. They are involved in generating the electrical currents that make the heart beat in orderly sequence. Heart tissue requires LA for proper functioning. EFAs are found around the chromatin, the hereditary material in the chromosomes, where they regulate chromosome stability, and have functions in the starting and stopping of gene expression. EFAs help govern the movement of chromosomes during cell division by their functions in spindle fiber development. EFAs are required in the formation of the new cell membranes, which separate the two daughter cells after a cell has divided. EFAs are involved in the function of the immune system, which acts to fight infections and confers resistance to disease and allergies. EFAs can buffer excess acid in the system, as well as excess base. EFAs are involved in the absorption of visible sunlight and ultraviolet light through the skin for storage in the body in the form of chemical bonds. Essential fatty acids are the highest source of energy in nutrition.
Saturated fatty acids are the simplest fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids are chains of carbon atoms that have hydrogen filling every bond. In foods, they normally range in length from four to 22 carbons. Because of their straight configuration, saturated fatty acids pack together easily and tend to be solid at room temperature. This explains why they are called saturated. They are "saturated" with hydrogen atoms. Butter, tallow, suet, palm oil and coconut oil are classified as saturated fats because they contain a preponderance of saturated fatty acids. Saturated fats are stable and do not become rancid when subjected to heat , as in cooking. The body breaks down SFAs to produce the energy necessary for the chemical reactions that maintain life. Besides their presence in membranes, where they help to form the basic membrane structure, this is the main function of SFAs. An enzyme within the cells snips successive 2-carbon fragments (called acetates) off the acid end of the SFA molecules (the process is called beta-oxidation), and injects these fragments in to the cells' main energy-producing factory (called the Krebs or tricarboxylic acid cycle), which "burns" them into carbon dioxide, water and energy. The energy drives the bio-chemical reaction which build and maintain our body structures, or it dissipates as heat, which keeps us warm. Too little fuel in the Krebs cycle "fire" gives the signal for beta-oxidation of fats to begin, to supply added fuel to keep the fire going. When there is too much protein or, more usually, refined sugars or starches in the diet, excess 2-carbon acetate fragments are formed, and must be taken out of the energy factory to prevent the Krebs cycle "fire" from burning too hot. SFAs are synthesized out of the excess acetate fragments, by hooking them end to end, and are stored as body fat. Short chain SFAs such as those found in butter and coconut oil, "burn" better than long chain SFAs in beef, mutton, and pork.
UFAs have 18 carbon links with one or more double bonds between carbon atoms in their fatty carbon chains. For each double bond, they give up 2 hydrogen atoms. Aside from this, they are identical in structure to the saturated fatty acids--they have the acid end and have carbon chains of varying lengths, just like the SFAs. Because of the way the hydrogen atoms are placed on the carbons involved in the double bonds, the chain is kinked at the double bond position--called cis- configuration. The kinks created by cis- double bonds in fatty acids make it difficult for the fatty acid chains to fit together well, and therefore they aggregate poorly. For this reason, they melt at a lower temperature (are more liquid) than SFAs, identical in every respect except for the double bond. The double bond, because it has a pair of extra electrons, carries a slight negative charge. Since like charges repel one another, this results in UFA chains repelling one another, and this repulsion gives them the tendency to spread out over surfaces in a very thin, 1-molecule-thick layer. Thus, while saturated fatty acids tend to aggregate, UFAs tend to disperse, to move apart, to be anti-sticky. This property of UFAs provides the fluidity needed in membranes. It allows molecules within the membrane the freedom to swim and dive, to make and break contacts with one another, to fulfill their important chemical and transport functions.
Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) are chains of carbon atoms that have one double bond between two carbons and therefore lack two hydrogens. Normally they range in length from 16 to 22 carbons. They have a kink or bend at the position of the double bond, so the molecules do not pack together as easily as in saturated fatty acids. Monounsaturated oils tend to be liquid at room temperature but become solid when refrigerated. Olive oil, peanut oil, lard, rapeseed and canola oils are classified as monounsaturated oils. The most common monounsaturated fatty acids are palmitoleic (16 carbons) occuring in larger quantities in milk, and also in coconut and palm kernel oils, oleic (18 carbons), and erucic (22 carbons). monounsaturated oils are relatively stable and can be used for cooking.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are UFAs with two or more double bonds. There is a bend or kink at each double bond, these fatty acids do not pack together easily and tend to be liquid, even when cold. Polyunsaturated oils are very fragile. They tend to develop harmful free radicals when subjected to heat and oxygen, and light as in cooking or processing and storage. Soybean oil, safflower oil, sunflower oil and flax oil are polyunsaturated oils. There are the natural PUFAs (EFAs), which are very important in the body's functions, but there are also PUFAs which are non-natural and man-made, which harm biological functions like. EFAs can be slowly converted within the body into larger and more highly unsaturated fatty acids which have important functions in the brain cells, the nerve endings called synapses, sense organs, adrenal glands, and sex glands.
Omega-6 fatty acids have the first double-bond at the sixth carbon from the end of the fatty acid chain. The most common omega-6 fatty acid is linoleic acid, which is called an essential fatty acid (EFA) because your body cannot make it. Omega-3 fatty acids have the first double bond at the third carbon. The most common omega-3 fatty acid is the EFA alpha-linolenic acid. The consensus among lipid experts is that the American diet is too high in omega-6 fatty acids (present in high amounts in commercial vegetable oils) and lacking in omega-3 fatty acids (present in organ meats, wild fish, egg yolks, organic vegetables and flax oil). A surplus of omega-6 fatty acids and deficiency in omega-3's can lead to depressed immune system function, contribute to weight gain and inflammation.
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a trans fatty acid made from n-6 essential linoleic acid by partial hydrogenation. CLA is not a nutrient ‘essential’ for health. Conjugated linoleic acid is one or more of 8 possible twisted trans fatty acids created from linoleic acid, also known as n-6 essential fatty acid (EFA). In nature, the conversion of linoleic acid into CLA occurs naturally in the stomachs of cows, goats, sheep and other cud-chewing animals; accordingly, CLA is found in the meat and milk fat of these species that are pastured or graze on grass. Butter, for example, normally contains about 5 mg of CLA per gram of fat. CLA is also sold in supplement form. To achieve this, n-6 fatty acids are treated by a process called hydrogenation, during which the original molecular structure of the fat is twisted into a different shape. The result is called a trans fat, and as more and more people are becoming aware, trans fats do not have the same desirable effects on health as essential fatty acids. In fact, CLA interferes with the conversion of EFAs (both n-6s and n-3s) to derivatives necessary for hormone production.
CLA is not essential. Unlike n-3s and n-6s, without which we cannot live, we could live healthfully on a CLA-free diet our entire life. The body has no requirement for CLA. But the body has an absolute requirement for EFAs, which should not be interfered with. While CLA is touted for many human problems, there are relatively few human studies to draw on. Unfortunately, a substantial number of these studies indicate that CLA does not do in human studies what it appears to do in animal studies. Some animal studies suggest that CLA can perform antioxidant functions and might have anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and cardio-protective properties. Other studies suggest that CLA actually increases oxidation of cells, which is not so good and carries a warning about the possible worsening of some degenerative conditions. Besides, if one wants antioxidant protection, there are hundreds of substances with antioxidant activity equal to or better than CLA, including vitamin A, beta-carotene and vitamin E. In addition, about half of all edible green plants contain hundreds of different anti-cancer, cardio-protective, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory ingredients.
At the CLA doses used in human studies, the research results are quite disappointing. Most human studies find no benefits for the degenerative conditions for which CLA is recommended: weight loss, impaired immune and antioxidant function, and cardiovascular problems. The usual doses of CLA used in animal studies greatly exceed those used in human studies. This may explain why animal studies come up with better results than human studies, and may also explain the negative effects of CLA on liver and insulin in rats, and the changes in yolk quality and hatchability in eggs. So, there appears to be a dose-related shadow side to CLA. Remove the shadow by lowering the dose, and the benefits also disappear.
It seems that CLA is highly overrated in terms of human health benefits. More sizzle than steak, as the saying goes. To effectively treat human diseases for which CLA showed benefits in animals, larger doses than are normally available in food (cream, butter) or supplement form would be needed. Based on several calculations, five per cent CLA, the highest dose used in animal studies, would convert to 35 and 21 grams of CLA for men and women, respectively. This would be 2.5 tablespoons of CLA for men, and 1.5 tablespoons for women. These high doses are unaffordable for many at today’s prices, making it impossible to provide effective doses to those who have problems CLA might address. Even worse, we have to consider the negative effects associated with higher doses of CLA in animals. At these high doses, similar negative effects would likely occur in humans as well. In contrast, the same daily intakes—or even higher (up to 10 tablespoons per day)—are appropriate for the more important and more affordable n-3 and n-6 EFA mixtures. Being far less expensive than CLA, such oils can be taken in the 30 to 150 gram/day range over the long term, and confer all of the health benefits hyped for but not delivered by CLA.
Instead of using CLA, we need to focus on getting enough EFAs. Essential fatty acids cannot be made by the body but, because they are necessary for the normal (healthy) functioning of every cell, tissue, gland, and organ, they must therefore be provided by foods.
Of the 45 essential nutrients discovered so far, linoleic acid is the one the body contains and needs the most of. The amount needed varies, depending on physical activity, stress, nutritional state, and individual differences. Because of hormonal differences, males may require up to 3 times as much as females. Requirement also varies from time to time for the same person. In the average human being, about 10% of the total of 10 kilograms of body fat tissue, or 1 kilogram is LA. Vegetarians contain up to 25% of their total body fat as LA. Although 1-2% of calories or 3-6 grams per day is enough to prevent symptoms of deficiency in most healthy subjects, an optimum amount might be in the range of 3-10% of calories, or 9-30 grams per day. The obese, and people on diets high in SFA's require even more. Other nutrients required for LA to properly unfold its functions in the body are vitamins E, C, B3, B6 and zinc. Vitamin A or its precursor, carotene, is also important. Where can we get the essential fatty acids we need? Plants have enzymes, which can insert a double bond into fatty acids in positions 3 and 6, but humans do not have such enzymes. That is why LA and LNA are essential in our food supply, and why they come primarily from plant sources. The best source of essential fatty acids is the oils of certain seeds and nuts. The richest source of these vital substances is FLAX SEED OIL. Safflower oil is also good, but contains only one of the essential fatty acids, LA. Soybean oil is also a fairly good source of both EFAs. Most seed oils contain some lecithin. The commonest and best commercial source of lecithin is soybean oil, which has up to 2% lecithin. Soybean lecithin contains both EFA's whereas the lecithin from most other oils contains only LA. The highly refined oils, which we find in transparent bottles on supermarket shelves, should not be used for anything. They have been degraded by light, have lost much of their nutrient value during the refining processes, and are usually made from the cheapest, most inferior, most intensely pesticide-sprayed oil plants.
Life is energy, and it flows in the body over molecules set up just for that purpose by the very precise structure and spatial arrangement of atoms and their electrons in relation to one another. When we change the molecular architecture of the body by introducing molecules, which are the wrong shape, size or properties, they do not fit, and they throw the flow pattern of the life currents off course. The life currents are responsible for all life functions, including healthy heartbeat, nerve function, cell division, coordination, sensory function, mental balance and vitality. We have to look no further than altered molecules and their capacity to impair, derail or interrupt the natural flow of energy from molecule to molecule within the body, to explain the degenerative diseases on the molecular level. In the metabolism of fats, several minerals and vitamins are known to be involved. Vitamins A and E are necessary to keep essential fatty acids intact in the body, to protect them from destruction by oxygen and free radicals, and to keep them capable of fulfilling their important duties. In order to break down saturated fatty acids into 2-carbon fragments (beta-oxidation), several co-factors are required, because many different enzyme steps are involved. Vitamins B2, B3, pantothenic acid, sulphur, and potassium are all required in different steps of the break-down process of these saturated fatty acids. There are other ways in which SFAs can be broken down. These alternate methods of fatty acid oxidation may require vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, sulphur and magnesium in order to take place. To synthesize fatty acids out of 2-carbon fragments, vitamins B2, B3, and biotin are necessary co-factors. In burning the 2-carbon fragments into carbon dioxide and water, vitamins B2, B3, and iron act as co-factors. To change linoleic acid into prostaglandin E1, several enzymes are involved, and each enzyme has its own co-factor requirement.
It is well known within the biochemical research community that light precipitates photo-oxidation in organic compounds, wherein light catalyzes oxidation where it would not otherwise occur. In unsaturated oils, photo-oxidation occurs at a much higher rate than auto-oxidation, the uncatalyzed reaction. Photo oxidation is the major factor in catalytic breakdown of fatty acids in oil. Photons are the electromagnetic rays that carry the energy of light. The photons pass through clear glass or plastic, striking the oil molecules, knocking electrons loose. The excited free electrons now become free radicals and take off, precipitating free radical chain reactions, destroying or altering many oil molecules before the chain reactions complete themselves. This is the process called photon decay. Photon decay is not the same as rancidity, which is the oxidation of oil molecules, easily detected by a distinctly "off" odor and flavor. But the photon decay of free radical activity cannot easily be detected by taste or smell. Photon decay is subtler than rancidity. It is more akin to a "fresh" quality, more an impression of being alive than an odor or a flavor. Yet, according to Udo Erasmus, author of Fats That Heal-Fats that Kill, "light is 1,000 times more destructive to oil than heat or oxygen."
Ultra-violet light is capable of ionizing atoms of all elements with the exception of inert gases. This ionization leads invariably to chemical reactions. Complete ionization is not necessary, however, to initiate oxidation reactions in fragile chemicals such as polyunsaturated fats. The energy in visible light is sufficient to place the molecules in an excited state where a reaction becomes inevitable. Therefore, it is clear that a completely opaque container is required for oil, vulnerable to the extreme effects of photo-oxidation. The problem is that oil in clear glass bottles is subject to photon decay and the altered fatty acid molecules either do not support health or actually undermine it. As Erasmus describes it, photon decay begins "the moment that the oil is exposed to light, and each ray (photon) of light can begin a free radical chain reaction which goes through an average 30,000 cycles before it stops." Light is necessary for our well-being, but in the right avenue of assimilation. In summer, sunlight absorbed through eyes and skin of healthy people can be conducted into the body and stored in chemical bonds for future use.
The essential fatty acids are required for the absorption of sunlight to take place. The saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids cannot substitute for the essential fatty acids in this function, and in fact, they interfere with this function of the essential fatty acids when the diet contains excessive quantities of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, as does the Western diet. The wavelengths of sunlight resonate with the pi-electrons of the double bonds; these electrons can therefore capture light energy. In practice, it is known that the essential fatty acids absorb light (they are part of the photosynthesis, by which plants absorb sunlight), and are chemically very sensitive to light. They are also known to react with oxygen (O2), and a part of their function in the brain and other extremely active tissues is to attract the required high supply of oxygen and energy which enables these tissues to be active. The lack of O2 in tissues always decreases their metabolism, and leads to depressed function. Low tissue O2 and depressed function are two symptoms common to all degenerative diseases. The essential fatty acids and sulphur-rich proteins form an association, within which the sunlight energy stored in foods is released, oscillates and dances. They also attract O2, which is needed to keep the dance of life energy going.
Sunlight and highly unsaturated oils are twins, and each can substitute for the other to some extent, though both are necessary. Their partnership explains why diets in different latitudes may be drastically different in fat content, and fat type, yet each are health-giving and life-sustaining for the consumers living in the area where it is naturally found. The more light, the less essential fatty acids seem to be needed. If an Eskimo ate just fruits and vegetables during the Arctic night, he would die. If the Samoan ate the Eskimo's fish oils in the hot tropical sun, he would fry. Each in his place, and on his native diet, thrives. A great enemy of edible oil is oxidation, the reaction of the oil with oxygen, which produces random degradation of the oil molecules, resulting in a potentially harmful product, to which the human sense of taste is extremely sensitive. This is perceived as rancidity. The dangers of frying result from the oxidation, taking place when oils are subjected to high temperatures, exposed to light, oxygen or air. In frying, here is what we usually do.
It is our custom to pour oil into the empty frying pan, and let it sizzle for a while before adding the foods we want to fry, and during this sizzling time (sometimes the oil begins to smoke!) the oil is destroyed. The temperature it reaches is too high, and at this temperature, light-catalyzed oxidation reactions occur very rapidly. In commercial deep-frying operations, the same batch of oil is often kept at a high temperature constantly for days. Many altered substances have been isolated from such oils. What keeps the level of these altered and toxic substances from getting too high is the fresh oil added to replace the oil that stuck to the fish and chips, or onion rings, or whatever was deep-fried, which you ate. Baking is similar to frying. The temperature is very high, so butter or coconut fat should be used to line baking pans. Frying with oils once won't kill you, and so seems harmless. The body has ways of coping with toxic substances. But over 10, 20 or 30 years, it is possible to accumulate enough altered and toxic products that the chemistry of the body, the bio-chemistry, is seriously impaired, and degenerative disease occurs.
Trans fatty acids, which are produced by high temperatures and have their double bonds on opposite sides of the chain, constitute the major class of these altered molecules, because the fatty acids are centrally important in the electrical reactions in the body, and because we consume them in comparatively large quantities in processed food products. By the time degeneration becomes visible, the trans-fatty acids have been metabolized, although they started the process which led to degeneration. It has been estimated that an average intake of trans-fatty acids is about 12 grams per day in the U.S., of which 95% comes from hydrogenated vegetable oil products, and the rest from animal products, mainly beef and butter fat. This 10 grams is almost 10% of our total fat intake.
Our annual consumption of trans-fatty acids is almost twice as much as our intake of all other unnatural food additives put together. The main source of trans-fatty acids in our diet is partial hydrogenation. The two main products from which we get t-fatty acids are margarines and shortenings or shortening oils, both of which are made from partially hydrogenated vegetable oils. Whenever a fat is needed for frying, one, which is mostly saturated, is preferable. None of the oils that come in bottles qualifies for frying, because what makes oils liquid is their content of unsaturated fatty acids. There are two good substances useful for frying purposes. One is coconut oil. The other is butter. Shortening and margarine are not good substances to fry with because they are not good substances to consume. An alternate, safe way of frying with oils, as in traditional Chinese cooking, is to first put water, not oil in the wok or skillet. The water keeps the temperature down to 100° C, and the water vapor (steam) protects the oil from air.
Hydrogenation is an excellent way to ruin the nutritional value in a sample of natural oil by hydrogenating the oil. In this process, an oil which contains unsaturated fatty acids in their natural, all cis- state are reacted at high temperature (120° -210° C or 248° - 410° F) and under pressure with hydrogen gas in the presence of a metal catalyst, usually nickel, but sometimes platinum or even copper, for 6 to 8 hours. If the process is brought to completion, all of the double bonds in the oil are saturated with hydrogen. The fatty acids in the fat that results contain no double bonds, contain neither cis- nor trans- configuration, and has no essential fatty acid activity. It is dead, doesn't spoil and has a long shelf life. Completely hydrogenated oil is relatively inert chemically and can be heated: fried, baked, roasted, and cooked; the body can use it for energy. But it also contains fragments of fatty acids created during the hydrogenation process, and altered molecules derived from fatty acids. Some of these are toxic. The metal catalyst used in this process may also contaminate it. It's used to make products like chocolate hard enough so they don't melt in your hand, yet melt in your mouth.
Partial hydrogenation allows the manufacturer to start with a cheap and low quality source of oil, and turn it into a semi-liquid, plastic, or solid fat with particular properties that competes with butter in spreadability. Partial hydrogenation is the process by which margarines, shortenings, and shortening oils are made. Consequently, it is to be expected that these products are high in trans- fatty acids and other altered fat substances. When the process of hydrogenation is not brought to completion, a product containing many (dozens) of intermediate substances results. Double bonds may turn from cis- to trans- configuration; double bonds may shift, producing conjugated fatty acids; they may move along the molecule to produce positional double bond isomers; fragments may be produced. Between the parent vegetable oil, sometimes labeled pure and the partially hydrogenated product...there is a world of chemistry that alters profoundly the composition and physiochemical properties of natural oils. There are so many possible different compounds that can be made during partial hydrogenation. Scientists have barely scratched the surface in studying all the changes induced in fats and oils by hydrogenation. Since the hydrogenation reaction occurs at random within the oil being hydrogenated, it is impossible to control the outcome of the process. Nor is it possible to predict the quantities of the different kinds of altered substances that will be present in any given batch of partially hydrogenated oil product. Because the process of partial hydrogenation has been used commercially on a large scale since the 1930s, and now, has a long tradition behind it. And because the oil industry has powerful lobbies in government, hydrogenation is allowed to continue to supply unnatural fat products to our foods.
Cottonseed oil is toxic to the body because if you've spent time in cotton country, it seems there is always a plane in the air dumping insecticide somewhere. Because of the boll weevil, cotton--which is not treated like a food crop--gets drenched. Cottonseed oil has the highest content of pesticide residues. Cottonseed oil contains from .6 to 1.2% of a cyclopropene fatty acid with 19 carbon atoms, having toxic effects on the liver and gall bladder and also slows down sexual maturity. On the biochemical level, this fatty acid destroys the desaturase enzymes, which make the highly unsaturated fatty acids, and therefore interferes with the functions of the essential fatty acids. Cottonseed oil also contains gossypol, a complex substance containing benzene rings, which irritates the digestive tract, causing water retention in the lungs, shortness of breath and paralysis. Rape (canola) and Mustard seed oils contain erucic acid, a 22-carbon, once unsaturated fatty acid (22:1w9). Erucic acid causes fatty degeneration of heart, kidney, adrenals, and thyroid. A third toxic fatty acid is cetoleic acid, another 22-carbon atom (22:1w11). Herring and capelin oils contain between 10 and 20% cetoleic acid, which is similar in its effects to erucic acid. Menhaden and anchovetta oils contain small amounts of this fatty acid.
Another toxic fatty acid is the hydroxy fatty acid ricinoleic acid, which makes up 80% of the fatty acid content of castor oil. This fatty acid stimulates the secretion of fluids in the intestine, and for this reason is used as a purge before medical intervention in gastro-intestinal problems. Another class of modified oil substances, one that rarely gets attention, is brominated oils. Brominated oils give a fresh look to old juices by preventing ring formation on the bottlenecks and have been added to commercial fruit drinks for more than 50 years. Brominated oils cause changes in the heart tissue, enlargement of the thyroid, fatty liver, kidney damage and withered testicles. They decrease the heart's ability to use saturated fats as fuel, and lower the liver's ability to metabolize pyruvic acid, a very common fuel. Other toxic products are formed by oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids (rancidity). These include: ozonides and peroxides, which are toxic to lung tissues and can be fatal; hydroperoxides, polymers and worst of all, hydroperoxyaldehydes, which are the most toxic of all the substances produced from oxidation. The right fats should not be feared--even more, they should be considered friends, not foes.
Oil should be fresh, unrefined, mechanically pressed, organically grown and stored in dark containers. Only health food stores carry acceptable oils, and not all oils in health food stores are acceptable. Fresh flax, safflower, sunflower, sesame, borage, and pumpkin seed oils are all acceptable.
The diseases of fatty degeneration afflict mainly the people who eat diets high in beef, mutton and pork and spare those people who live on diets high in the complex, unrefined carbohydrates made up of mostly grains and vegetables. If we compare the fat content of the domesticated animals with that of their wild counterparts, we discover that the domesticated animals have far higher fat content that the wild ones which our ancestors hunted. Wild animals have a higher percentage of the essential fatty acids in their fat. Organ meats are lower in fat and higher in essential fatty acids than muscle meats. Liver contains about 4% fat, brain about 9%, heart about 6 to 10%, kidney about 6%, etc. Organ meats are also richer in essential vitamins and minerals than muscle meats, and are therefore preferable to muscle meats from a nutritional viewpoint. Beef is between 24 and 45% fat, mutton is between 20 and 40% fat, and pork runs between 35 and 60% fat. In comparison, venison and moose run a maximum of 5% fat, and are usually about 2-3% fat. Wild rabbit is 5%, and domestic rabbit is 8% fat. Wild pig carries only 1 to 3% fat. Even wild animals, which live in the far north, carry little extra fat, in spite of cold winter conditions. Wild caribou have only 3% fat, but the domesticated reindeer go up near 20% fat. Sausage meats vary in fat content, from 20 to 38% for salami, 27% for bologna, 37% for blood sausage, and 50% for some pork sausages. Wieners are about 43% fat. Most of the fats in these products are saturated. Some of these products also contain starch as fillers or "extenders," and the starch, converted to saturated fat, adds to the load of saturated fats that the body must manage.
Canola oil is widely used in gourmet health food markets and in many supermarket items as well. It is a commonly used oil in sterol-containing margarines and spreads recommended for cholesterol lowering. Use of hydrogenated canola oil for frying is increasing, especially in restaurants. Canola oil is a poisonous substance; an industrial oil that does not belong in the body. It contains the infamous chemical warfare agent mustard gas, hemagglutinins and toxic cyanide-containing glycosides; it causes mad cow disease, blindness, nervous disorders, clumping of blood cells and depression if the immune system.
History
In the mid-1980s the food industry had a problem. In collusion with the American Heart Association, numerous government agencies and departments of nutrition at major universities, the industry had been promoting polyunsaturated oils as a heart-healthy alternative to "artery-clogging" saturated fats. Unfortunately, it had become increasingly clear that polyunsaturated oils, particularly corn oil and soybean oil, cause numerous health problems, including and especially cancer. The industry was in a bind. It could not continue using large amounts of liquid polyunsaturated oils and make health claims about them in the face of mounting evidence of their dangers. Nor could manufacturers return to using traditional healthy saturates--butter, lard, tallow, palm oil and coconut oil--without causing an uproar. Besides, these fats cost too much for the cut-throat profit margins in the industry.
The solution was to embrace the use of monounsaturated oils, such as olive oil. Studies had shown that olive oil has a "better" effect than polyunsaturated oils on cholesterol levels and other blood parameters. It was at this time that articles extolling the virtues of olive oil began to appear in the popular press. Promotion of olive oil, which had a long history of use, seemed more scientifically sound to the health-conscious consumer than the promotion of corn and soy oil, which could only be extracted with modern stainless steel presses. The problem for the industry was that there was not enough olive oil in the world to meet its needs. And, like butter and other traditional fats, olive oil was too expensive to use in most processed foods. The industry needed a less expensive monounsaturated oil. Rapeseed oil was a monounsaturated oil that had been used extensively in many parts of the world, notably in China, Japan and India. It contains almost 60 percent monounsaturated fatty acids (compared to about 70 percent in olive oil). Unfortunately, about two-thirds of the monounsaturated fatty acids in rapeseed oil are erucic acid, a 22-carbon monounsaturated fatty acid that had been associated with Keshan's disease, characterized by fibrotic lesions of the heart. In the late 1970s, using a technique of genetic manipulation involving seed splitting, Canadian plant breeders came up with a variety of rapeseed that produced a monounsaturated oil that was low in 22-carbon erucic acid and high in 18-carbon oleic acid.
The new oil--referred to as LEAR oil, for Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed--was slow to catch on in the U.S. In 1986, Cargill announced the sale of LEAR oilseed to U.S. farmers and provided LEAR oil processing at its Riverside, North Dakota, plant, but prices dropped and farmers took a hit. Before LEAR oil could be promoted as a healthy alternative to polyunsaturated oils, it needed a new name. Neither "rape" nor "LEAR" could be expected to invoke a healthy image for the new "Cinderella" crop. In 1978, the industry settled on "canola," for Canadian oil," since most of the new rapeseed at that time was grown in Canada. "Canola" also sounded like "can do" and "payola"--both positive phrases in marketing lingo. However, the new name did not come into widespread use until the early 1990s. An initial challenge for the Canola Council of Canada was the fact that rapeseed had never been given GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) status by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. A change in regulation would be necessary before canola could be marketed in the U.S. Just how this was done has not been revealed, but GRAS status was granted in 1985--for which, it is rumored, the Canadian government spent $50 million to obtain. Even though canola oil now has GRAS status, no long-term studies on humans have been done. Animal studies on LEAR oil were performed when the oil was first developed and have continued to the present. The results challenge not only the health claims made for canola oil, but also the theoretical underpinnings of the diet-heart hypothesis.
Since canola was aimed at the growing numbers of health-conscious consumers rather than the junk food market, it required more subtle marketing techniques than television advertising. The industry had managed to manipulate the science to make a perfect match with canola oil--very low in saturated fat and rich in monounsaturates. In addition, canola oil contains about 10 percent omega-3 fatty acids--the most recent discovery of establishment nutritionists. Most Americans are deficient in omega-3 fatty acids, which had been shown to be beneficial to the heart and immune system. The challenge was to market this dream-come-true fatty acid profile in a way that would appeal to educated consumers. Canola oil began to appear in the recipes of cutting-edge health books. The technique was to extol the virtues of the Mediterranean diet and olive oil in the text, and then call for "olive oil or canola oil" in the recipes.
Since unprocessed canola oil contains not only lots of monounsaturated fatty acids, but also a significant amount of omega-3, it showed up in many cookbooks' recipes. The canola industry's approach--scientific conferences, promotion to upscale consumers through books like The Omega Diet, and articles in the health section of newspapers and magazines--was successful. By the late 1990s, canola use had soared, and not just in the United States. Today China, Japan, Europe, Mexico, Bangladesh and Pakistan all buy significant amounts. Canola does well in arid environments such as Australia and the Canadian plains, where it has become a major cash crop. It is the oil of choice in gourmet and health food markets and showed up in many supermarket items as well.
Hazards of Canola
Rape is a member of the Brassica or mustard family. Glycosides or glycosinolates (compounds that produce sugars on hydrolysis) are found in most members of the Brassica family including broccoli, kale, cabbage and mustard greens. They contain sulphur, which is what gives mustard and cruciferous vegetables their pungent flavor. These compounds are goitrogenic and must be neutralized by cooking or fermentation. As rapeseed meal was high in glycosides, it could not be used in large amounts for animal feeding. However, plant breeders have been able to breed out the glycosides as well as the erucic acid from canola oil. The result is a low-glycoside meal that can be used as an animal feed. In fact, canola meal for animal feed is an important Canadian export. Hemagglutinins--substances that promote blood clotting and depress growth--are found in the protein portion of the seed, although traces may show up in the oil. Like all fats and oils, rapeseed oil has industrial uses. It can be used as an insecticide, a lubricant, a fuel and in soap, synthetic rubber and ink. Like flax oil and walnut oil, it can be used to make varnish. Traditional fats like coconut oil, olive oil and tallow also have industrial uses, but that does not make them dangerous for human consumption.
The first published studies on the new oil were performed in 1978. The industry was naturally interested to know whether the new LEAR oil caused heart lesions in test animals. In earlier studies, animals fed high-erucic acid rapeseed oil showed growth retardation and undesirable changes in various organs, especially the heart--a discovery that touched off the so-called "erucic acid crisis." Vitamin E protects cell membranes against free radical damage and is vital to a healthy cardiovascular system. Piglets fed canola oil suffered from a decrease in platelet count and an increase in platelet size. Bleeding time was longer in piglets fed both canola oil and rapeseed oil. These changes were mitigated by the addition of saturated fatty acids from either cocoa butter or coconut oil to the piglets' diet. Canola oil was found to suppress the normal developmental increase in platelet count. Rats bred to have high blood pressure and proneness to stroke had shortened life-spans when fed canola oil as the sole source of fat.
A later study suggested that the culprit was the sterol compounds in the oil, which make the cell membrane more rigid and contribute to the shortened life-span of the animals. These studies all point in the same direction: that canola oil is definitely not healthy for the cardiovascular system. Like rapeseed oil, its predecessor, canola oil is associated with fibrotic lesions of the heart. It also causes vitamin E deficiency, undesirable changes in the blood platelets, and shortened life-span in stroke prone rats when it was the only oil in the animals' diet. Furthermore, it seems to retard growth, which is why the FDA does not allow the use of canola oil in infant formula. When saturated fats are added to the diet, the undesirable effects of canola oil are mitigated. Most interesting of all is the fact that many studies show that the problems with canola oil are not related to the content of erucic acid, but more with the high levels of omega-3 fatty acids and low levels of saturated fats.
In areas where there is a selenium deficiency, use of rapeseed oil has been associated with a high incidence of fibrotic lesions of the heart, called Keshan's disease. The animal studies carried out over the past 20 years suggest that when rapeseed oil is used in impoverished human diets, without adequate saturated fats from ghee, coconut oil or lard, then the deleterious effects are magnified. In the context of healthy traditional diets that include saturated fats, rapeseed oil--in particular, erucic acid in rapeseed oil--does not pose a problem. In fact, erucic acid is helpful in the treatment of the wasting disease. High levels of omega-3 fatty acids, present in unprocessed rapeseed oil, don't pose a problem, either, when the diet is high in saturates. Diets with adequate saturated fats help the body convert omega-3s into the long-chain versions EPA and DHA, which is what the body wants to do with most of the 18-carbon omega-3s. Conversion is reduced by 40 to 50% in diets lacking in saturated fats and high in omega-6s from commercial vegetable oils (particularly soy oil). In the animal studies on canola oil, dietary saturated fats removed the harmful effects of omega-3s.
A 1995 Wall Street Journal article reported that use of rapeseed oil in cooking was associated with greatly increased rates of lung cancer in the women breathing the fumes. Once again, a lack of saturates in the diet may explain the association, because the lungs can't work without adequate saturated fats. In India, rapeseed oil has been used as a cooking oil for thousands of years, but only recently have Indian housewives been cajoled into the belief that saturated butter and ghee should be avoided. Many now use vanispati, an imitation ghee made of partially hydrogenated soybean oil. Rapeseed has been used as a source of oil since ancient times because it is easily extracted from the seed. Interestingly, the seeds were cooked first before the oil was extracted.
In China, and India, rapeseed oil was provided by thousands of peddlers operating small stone presses that press out the oil at low temperatures. What the merchant then sells to the housewife is absolutely fresh. Modern oil processing is a different thing entirely. The oil is removed by a combination of high temperature mechanical pressing and solvent extraction. Traces of the solvent (usually hexane) remain in the oil, even after considerable refining. Like all modern vegetable oils, canola oil goes through the process of caustic refining, bleaching and degumming--all of which involve high temperatures or chemicals of questionable safety. And because canola oil is high in omega-3 fatty acids, which easily become rancid and foul-smelling when subjected to oxygen and high temperatures, it must be deodorized. The standard deodorization process removes a large portion of the omega-3 fatty acids by turning them into trans fatty acids.
The consumer has no clue about the presence of trans fatty acids in canola oil because they are not listed on the label. A large portion of canola oil used in processed food has been hardened through the hydrogenation process, which introduces levels of trans fatty acids into the final product as high as 40 percent. In fact, canola oil hydrogenates beautifully, better than corn oil or soybean oil, because modern hydrogenation methods hydrogenate omega-3 fatty acids preferentially--and canola oil is very high in omega-3s. Higher levels of trans mean longer shelf life for processed foods, a crisper texture in cookies and crackers--and more dangers of chronic disease for the consumer.
Consumer acceptance of canola oil represents one in a series of victories for the food processing industry, which has as its goal the replacement of all traditional foods with imitation foods made out of products derived from corn, wheat, soybeans and oilseeds. Canola oil came to the rescue when the promotion of polyunsaturated corn and soybean oils had become more and more untenable. Scientists could endorse canola oil in good conscience because it was a "heart-healthy" oil, low in saturated fat, high in monounsaturates and a good source of omega-3 fatty acids. But most of the omega-3s in canola oil are transformed into trans fats during the deodorization process; and research continues to prove that the saturates are necessary and highly protective.
Obviously, monounsaturated fatty acids are not harmful in moderate amounts in the context of a traditional diet, but what about in the context of the modern diet, where the health-conscious community is relying on monounsaturated fats almost exclusively? There are indications that monounsaturated fats in excess and as the major type of fat can be a problem. Overabundance of oleic acid (found in olive and canola oils) creates imbalances on the cellular level that can inhibit prostaglandin production. In one study, higher monounsaturated fat consumption was associated with an increased risk of breast cancer. Even the dogma that monounsaturated fatty acids are good for the heart is at risk. According to a 1998 report, mice fed monounsaturated fats were even more prone to heart disease than those fed polyunsaturated fatty acids. This means that the type of diet low in protective saturates, bolstered with high levels of omega-3 fatty acids and relying on monounsaturated fatty acids, whether from olive or canola oil, for the majority of fat calories--may actually contribute to heart disease. Such diets have been presented with great marketing finesse.
Coconuts are a source of important physiologically functional components, found in the fat part of whole coconut, in the fat part of desiccated coconut and in the extracted coconut oil. Lauric acid, the major fatty acid from the fat of the coconut, has long been recognized for the unique properties that it lends to nonfood uses in the soaps and cosmetics industry. More recently, lauric acid has been recognized for its unique properties in food use, which are related to its antiviral, antibacterial and antiprotozoal functions. These fatty acids are found in the largest amounts only in traditional lauric fats, especially from coconut. Natural coconut fat in the diet leads to a normalization of body lipids, protects against alcohol damage to the liver and improves the immune system's anti-inflammatory response. Certain fatty acids and their derivatives can have adverse effects on various microorganisms. Those microorganisms that are inactivated include bacteria, yeast, fungi and enveloped viruses.
As a functional food, coconut has fatty acids that provide both energy (nutrients) and raw material for antimicrobial fatty acids and monoglycerides (functional components) when it is eaten. Desiccated coconut is about 69% coconut fat, as is creamed coconut. Full coconut milk is approximately 24% fat. Approximately 50% of the fatty acids in coconut fat are lauric acid. Lauric acid is a medium-chain fatty acid which has the additional beneficial function of being formed into monolaurin in the human or animal body. Monolaurin is the antiviral, antibacterial and antiprotozoal monoglyceride used by the human and animal to destroy lipid-coated viruses such as HIV, herpes, cytomegalovirus, influenza, various pathogenic bacteria including hemophilus influenzae, staphylococcus epidermidis and group B gram-positive streptococcus, listeria monocytogenes streptococcus agalactiae, helicobacter pylori, groups A, F and G streptococci, gram-positive organisms, and some gram-negative organisms if pretreated with a chelator; also, a number of fungi, yeast and protozoa such as giardia lamblia have been found to be inactivated or killed by lauric acid or monolaurin.
The fungi include several species of ringworm. The yeast reported is candida albicans. Chlamydia trachomatis is inactivated by lauric acid, capric acid and monocaprin. Some studies have also shown some antimicrobial effects of the free lauric acid. Also, approximately 6-7% of the fatty acids in coconut fat are capric acid. Capric acid is another medium-chain fatty acid which has a similar beneficial function when it is formed into monocaprin in the human or animal body. Monocaprin has also been shown to have antiviral effects against HIV and is being tested for antiviral effects against herpes simplex and for antibacterial effects against Chlamydia and other sexually transmitted bacteria. The properties that determine the anti-infective action of lipids are related to their structure.
The monoglycerides are active; diglycerides and triglycerides are inactive. Of the saturated fatty acids, lauric acid has greater antiviral activity than caprylic acid, capric acid, or myristic acid. The fatty acids and monoglycerides produce their killing/inactivating effect by lysing the plasma membrane lipid bilayer. The antiviral action attributed to monolaurin is that of solubilizing the lipids and phospholipids in the envelope of the virus, causing the disintegration of the virus envelope. One antimicrobial effect in bacteria is related to monolaurin's interference with signal transduction, and another antimicrobial effect in viruses is due to lauric acid's interference with virus assembly and viral maturation.
Research has shown that enveloped viruses are inactivated in both human and bovine milk by added fatty acids and monoglycerides and also by endogenous fatty acids and monoglycerides of the appropriate length. Lauric acid is one of the best inactivating fatty acids, and its monoglyceride is even more effective than the fatty acid alone. Monolaurin does not appear to have an adverse effect on desirable gut bacteria but, rather, only on potentially pathogenic micro-organisms. Unfortunately, in the United States, during the late 1930s and again during the 1980s and 1990s, the commercial interests of the domestic fats and oils industry were successful in driving down usage of coconut oil. As a result, in the U.S. and in other countries where the influence from the U.S. is strong, the manufacturer has lost the benefit of the lauric oils in its food products. It is the consumer who has lost the many health benefits that can result from regular consumption of coconut products.
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